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European Heart Journal Advance Access originally published online on October 17, 2006
European Heart Journal 2006 27(22):2709-2715; doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehl328
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© The European Society of Cardiology 2006. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oxfordjournals.org

Early complications of stenting in patients with congenital heart disease: a multicentre study

Menno van Gameren1, Maarten Witsenburg1,*, Johanna J.M. Takkenberg2, Derize Boshoff3, Luc Mertens3, Anton M. van Oort4, Daniël de Wolf5, Matthias Freund6, Narayanswani Sreeram7, Regina Bökenkamp8, Melle D. Talsma9 and Marc Gewillig3

1 Department of Paediatric Cardiology, Erasmus MC-Sophia Children's Hospital, Dr. Molewaterplein 60, 3015 GJ Rotterdam, The Netherlands
2 Department of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
3 Department of Paediatric Cardiology, University Hospital Leuven, Belgium
4 Department of Paediatric Cardiology, University Hospital Nijmegen, The Netherlands
5 Department of Paediatric Cardiology, University Hospital Gent, Belgium
6 Department of Paediatric Cardiology, Utrecht University Medical Centre, The Netherlands
7 Department of Paediatric Cardiology, University Hospital Cologne, Germany
8 Department of Paediatric Cardiology, Leiden University Medical Centre, The Netherlands
9 Department of Paediatric Cardiology, University Hospital Groningen, The Netherlands

Received 13 January 2005; revised 22 September 2006; accepted 28 September 2006; online publish-ahead-of-print 17 October 2006.

* Corresponding author. Tel: +31 104 636 008; fax: +31 104 636 801. E-mail address: m.witsenburg{at}erasmusmc.nl


   Abstract
Top
 Abstract
Introduction
 Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Study limitations
 Conclusions and recommendations
 References
 
Aims Stenting has become an established interventional cardiology procedure for congenital heart disease. Although most stent procedures are completed successfully, complications may occur. This multicentre study evaluated early complications after stenting in patients with congenital heart disease, including potential risk factors.

Methods and results In this combined Dutch–Belgian retrospective study, 309 consecutive patients had undergone 366 catheterizations and received 464 stents in 13 different anatomical positions (418 sites). Seventy-two stenting-related complications (19%) occurred, of which 24 (5.7%) were major. Seven procedure-related deaths were documented (2.3%). Stent malpositioning and embolization were most common (7.7%). The use of non-premounted stents tended to be associated with higher complication rates. Centre inexperience with stenting and stenting of native vs. post-surgical stenosis tended to be associated with increased major complication rates.

Conclusion After stenting, complications are common for congenital heart disease. The vast diversity of stenotic sites combined with relatively small patient populations makes these procedures sensitive to complications. Combining operator experience may reduce the risks of stenting in congenital heart disease. The availability of premounted stents for greater vessel diameters will likely reduce incidences of stent migration and embolization.

Key Words: Stents • Interventional catheterization • Congenital heart disease • Paediatrics • Complications


   Introduction
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Study limitations
 Conclusions and recommendations
 References
 
Since the first report on the use of stents in congenital heart disease in 1991,1 stenting has gradually replaced—or postponed to a later date—a variety of surgical interventions of either a corrective or palliative nature.2,3 At present, stenting is the preferred intervention for a large variety of primary or acquired stenoses in congenital heart disease.1,4

Intravascular stents are mainly used for resolving stenoses that do not respond to conventional balloon dilation. These include: compliant obstructions, stenoses due to kinking or external compression and several post-operative stenoses, aortic re-coarctation being a good example of this.

The use of stents for treating a stenosis in children is challenging, as ideally the final vessel diameter after stenting should ultimately approach the adult vessel size. Currently, only non-premounted stents can be dilated up to large diameters. When stents are used at younger ages, re-dilatation should be possible to accommodate for the expected vessel growth over time, unless stenting is being used to serve as a bridge for a surgical intervention. At present, stenting is therefore, mostly performed in older children and adults.

The annual number of stent procedures for congenital heart disease is relatively small and stented anatomical sites and patient characteristics vary widely. It appears that even in experienced hands, stenting can be complicated by different problems, ranging from malpositioning to vessel rupture and even procedure-related death.5 To understand this, we performed a retrospective study in seven centres in the Netherlands and Belgium, evaluating rates and types of short-term complications after stenting for congenital heart disease. In addition, we looked at potential determinants of these complications.


   Methods
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Methods
Results
 Discussion
 Study limitations
 Conclusions and recommendations
 References
 
All five centres in the Netherlands and two in Belgium that perform stenting for congenital heart disease contributed to this study. We retrospectively evaluated all initial stent implantations performed in each centre since the start of their stenting practice. Stent re-dilatation procedures were not included.

Table 1 shows relevant statistics for each centre. Most stent implantation sites were evenly represented across centres. However, stenting for pulmonary vein stenosis, major aorta-pulmonary collateral arteries (MAPCA), patent arterial duct and atrial septum (AS) fenestration were almost exclusively performed in centre A.


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  		Table 1 Population distribution across centres

 
Data collection and study design
Data was obtained from patient records and registered using an MS Access 2002 database (Microsoft Corporation, Silicon Valley, USA). Complications were categorized as major or minor. Major complications included all events leading to death, life-threatening haemodynamic compromise, the need for surgical intervention, or a substantial permanent anatomical or functional lesion. Minor complications included all transient un-anticipated events resulting from the stent procedure.

All complications were grouped in the following categories: balloon rupture, vessel dissection, stent malpositioning, migration or embolization, inaccessible implantation site, stent-induced pulmonary oedema, arrhythmias, and other complications. Stent malpositioning, migration, and embolization were grouped together because these events are fairly comparable and often hard to distinguish, the more so when they are being collected retrospectively.

Vessel dissection was considered as a major complication if it required surgical intervention or an additional procedure. Limited extravasation was assigned to the minor complications. Multiple similar complications at one stent site (e.g. repeated balloon rupture) were counted as one.

Study population
One centre started stenting practice in May 1992, the others followed in the years between 1992 and 1997. Data was obtained through June 2004. Overall, 464 stents had been implanted in 309 patients including 180 males and 129 females. Ages ranged from 1 day to 68 years, at a mean of 11 years (±10.8 SD). Mean height and weight were 123 cm (±40.1 SD) and 32 kg (±24.5 SD), respectively. All but three of the 309 patients included in this study had congenital heart disease: two had Kawasaki disease-related arterial vasculitis, and one had severe iliac vein thrombosis. In 306 patients, stenting had been performed during cardiac catheterization. Three received one or multiple stents during open heart surgery. Two-hundred-and-sixty-three patients underwent one catheterization, 38 underwent two catheterizations, five patients with three catheterizations, and three patients underwent four catheterizations. Table 2 links the various stent implantation sites with corresponding stent and patient characteristics. Some specific details are given below.


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  		Table 2 Stented site characteristics

 
The left and right pulmonary artery groups together reflected 114 post-surgical, 90 primary, four induced, and 15 unknown stenoses. Induced stenoses were those created by other previously implanted stents or transcatheter devices. The aorta group comprised 22 native and 47 recurrent coarctations. The systemic vein group included five primary stenoses, 12 post-surgical stenoses, two thrombosed sites, and one unknown stenosis. Four of the 12 post-surgical stenoses were modified Glenn anastomoses. Two stents in the atrial septal fenestrations group had been placed within previously implanted stents. This group also includes one fenestration stent in a total cavo-pulmonary connection. The right ventricular outflow tract and pulmonary artery trunk group reflects both primary and post-surgical stenoses. Eight of all these 11 stenoses were in surgically implanted conduits (i.e. allograft etc.). All stented aorto-pulmonary shunts were surgically constructed conduits, mostly modified Blalock-Taussig shunts.

Stent types
The 464 documented stents are hepatobiliary, renal, iliac, and coronary stents of different types and sizes. The great diversity reflects the multicentre set-up and long-term frame of this study. Of the stents, 255 were non-premounted, 145 premounted, and 41 self-expanding. Of 23 stents, the type and manufacturer could not be identified retrospectively. Non-premounted stents were mostly the Cordis Palmaz stents. In premounted stents, a large variation in types and manufacturers were found. Of the self-expanding stents, the Boston Scientific Wallstent was mostly used.

Statistical analysis
For descriptive statistical analysis, SPSS 11.0.1 for Windows software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, USA) was used. Continuous variables are presented as means±SD. Discrete variables are presented both as proportions and counts. Potential determinants of complications, major complications, and death were analysed by SAS 9.1 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). A logistic regression model was constructed for all 366 procedures corrected for multiple procedures in the same patient [generalized estimating equation (GEE)]. Repeated measures were coded per procedure; a compound symmetric correlation matrix was used. Outcome measures were all complications, major complications, and death. The following potential determinants of outcome were entered into the model: centre experience (the first 20 procedures in each centre were considered to be inexperienced, and all consecutive procedures to be experienced), premounted vs. unmounted stents, age <1 year, self-expandable vs. balloon-expandable stents, and native vs. post-surgical stenosis. Furthermore, using the same GEE method, a subset analysis was done for those procedures that involved pulmonary artery stenting. This analysis is aimed at determining the influence of simultaneous stenting of the right and left pulmonary artery on outcome. Finally, a similar subset analysis was accomplished for those procedures that involved stenting of a coarctation, aimed at determining the influence of native vs. re-coarctation on outcome.


   Results
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Methods
 Results
Discussion
 Study limitations
 Conclusions and recommendations
 References
 
Complications were documented for 69/366 (19%) procedures at 72/418 (17%) stented sites. With 24 major complications, the procedure-related major complication rate was 6.5% and the anatomical site-related major complication rate 5.7%.

Complications by implantation site
Table 3 shows complication rates for the various implantation sites. Branch pulmonary artery stenting had been most frequently performed, followed by stenting of the aorta. Thirty-three patients underwent stenting of both a left and a right side pulmonary artery stenosis in the same procedure. The number of stent implantations for all other anatomical sites did not exceed 25. Complication rates were highest (45%) in the right ventricular outflow tract/pulmonary trunk group; this was a small group including several post-surgical patients. Relatively high complication rates were also found in the arterial duct group (35%), the aorto-pulmonary shunt group (22%), and the pulmonary vein group (20%). Table 4 shows a more detailed distribution of complications by implantation site. Table 5 shows frequencies of the different types of complications which were broken down for complication categories, and which include major complications and death. Occurring in 7.7% of all implantations, the combined stent malpositioning, migration, and/or embolization complication type was most frequent.


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  		Table 3 Complication rates per site

 

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  		Table 4 Complication categories (major/minor) by implantation site

 

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  		Table 5 Distribution of complication categories

 
Mortality
The death of seven patients was directly related to the stent implantation procedure, resulting in a 2.3% procedural mortality. These patients' details are presented in Table 6. Three were younger than 1 year (4.5% fatal complication rate in infants). Most of these infants were severely ill. For patients older than 1 year, the fatal complication rate was 1.1%.


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  		Table 6 Mortality

 
Potential determinants of outcome
Table 7 shows that the use of a premounted stent tends to be significantly associated with both a lower overall complication rate and lower major complication rate as compared with the use of a non-premounted stent. Furthermore, although centre experience with stenting does not affect overall complication and death rates, there is a tendency towards less major complications in experienced centres. Children younger than 1 year at the time of the procedure tend to be at increased risk for death, but not for complications. The use of a self-expandable stent does not affect outcome. Finally, stenting of a native lesion tends to be associated with more major complications as compared with a post-surgical stenosis.


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  		Table 7 Potential determinants of complications and death after stenting

 
Subset analysis of the procedures that involved pulmonary artery stenting shows no association between simultaneous stenting of the right and left pulmonary artery and outcome [overall complications: OR 1.57 (95% CI 0.65–3.79), P=0.32; major complications: OR 2.47 (95% CI 0.31–19.7), P=0.39]. Overall complication rates in this subset are significantly lower with the use of premounted stents [OR 0.28 (95% CI 0.10–0.86), P=0.03].

Subset analysis of the procedures that involved stenting of aortic coarctations shows no differences in outcome after stenting of native vs. recurrent coarctations [OR 4.76 (95% CI 0.56–40.62), P=0.15).


   Discussion
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Methods
 Results
 Discussion
Study limitations
 Conclusions and recommendations
 References
 
Though the annual number of stent procedures for the treatment of congenital heart defects has gradually increased since its introduction over 15 years ago, it still remains minimal. Given the large variety in anatomical locations and stent types, it is not surprising that early complications should be quite common. We found a 19% overall complication rate and a 5.7% major complication rate. Other studies on early complications after stent implantation for congenital heart disease are rare. Agnoletti et al.6 reported an even higher complication rate and a more frequent need for surgical intervention, but lack of details preclude a valid comparison of findings. Fortunately, many problems during stent implantation are transient and can be solved without ending the procedure, or may be solved by surgery with acceptable results.7

Procedural mortality in the present study tended to be higher in infants when compared with children older than 1 year at the time of the procedure. Stenting in two cases—an infant with Tetralogy of Fallot and an infant with aortic re-coarctation—may be debatable in retrospect, especially because reliable surgical solutions have been available for these indications for years. Several centres now routinely perform ductal stenting and have provided technical details that should prevent inappropriate ductal coverage by the stent.2,8 Pulmonary vein stenosis bears a grim prognosis and surgical solutions are often not available. It requires aggressive anticoagulation during and after pulmonary vein stenting, which will not always prevent systemic embolic complications like the one reported here. Our documented case of coronary compression induced by branch pulmonary artery stenting illustrates the indispensability of detailed morphological work-up either by MRI or angiography before stenting is performed.

The use of non-premounted stents, in our study, tended to be associated with higher complication rates, with stent malpositioning, migration and embolization occurring most frequently. The comparison with premounted stents is biased, however, as the latter cannot be used in larger vessels. Non-premounted stents therefore are predominant in older patients. Other studies comparing premounted with non-premounted stents related to congenital heart disease were not found. Premounted stents have now become standard in coronary heart disease. Schneider et al.9 compared the use of premounted vs. non-premounted stents in acquired coronary artery stenosis. No significant differences in procedural success, restenosis, and complication rates were noted. Ease of use is the main reason for using premounted stents for coronary artery sclerosis. Ease of use explains the predilection for the larger premounted stents used in congenital heart disease as well.

Cheung et al.10 advised against the use of self-expanding stents in growing children, in view of their significant neointimal ingrowth, unyielding design to over-dilation, and complications of distal migration. Accordingly, we found self-expanding stents almost exclusively implanted in patients older than 15 years. This age bias may explain that complication rates in this study for self-expanding stent and balloon-expandable stent did not significantly differ. Nearly all self-expanding stent-related complications were malpositioning, migration or embolization complications, thus supporting the findings of Cheung et al.

Subset analysis of the procedures that involved pulmonary artery stenting showed fewer overall complications with the use of premounted stents than with the use of non-premounted stents, implying that premounted stents may be preferred for this patient group. Pulmonary artery stenting is nowadays preferred over balloon dilation alone, because of its higher immediate success rate and lower mid-term incidence of restenosis.11 In this study, pulmonary artery stenting was the most common procedure. As with all stent implantations in growing children, the need for future stent enlargement should be anticipated. Stent re-dilatation in pulmonary arteries was found safe and effective for up to 3 years.12,13 A large single centre study by Vitiello et al. reported 22 complications (six major) in 162 pulmonary artery stent implantations.5 Their 14% overall complication rate compares well with our 17% outcome when combining the left and right pulmonary artery groups. The major complication rates are comparable as well; 6% in our study vs. 4% in the Vitiello study.

Centre inexperience with stenting tended to be associated with a higher major complication rate. McMahon et al. in their 12-year retrospective, single-centre study on pulmonary artery stenting did not observe any morbidity or mortality in the last 5 years of their experience.14 The long time-frame, the many different operators, and the introduction of new indications, like ductal stenting in more recent years, could explain that the effect of centre inexperience in our study is not more striking. Combining experience from interventional paediatric cardiologists may contribute to lower complication rates.

Subset analysis of the procedures that involved stenting of aortic coarctations showed no differences in outcome after stenting of native vs. recurrent coarctations. This may be due to the small number of procedures. Vessel dissection was found twice, both in recurrent coarctation sites. Historically, there is more concern about vessel dissection in native stenoses.15 This is not supported by our study. Other studies focus mainly on results and complications for combined native and recurrent coarctation. Johnston et al.16 demonstrated a low complication rate for this combined group. With the introduction of newer, more flexible, round-edged stents over the past years, complication rates of stenting coarctations will probably further drop.17

Stenting in pulmonary vein stenosis was documented five times only. As mentioned above, one of these implantations proved fatal as in-stent thrombosis resulted in embolization of a middle cerebral artery. This outcome illustrates the necessity of weighing the benefits and adverse effects of stent treatment in individual cases, especially in this rare and frequently progressive disease.

Stenting for congenital heart disease is disadvantageous mainly in growing children. To accommodate for vessel growth over time, re-dilatation may be necessary. Proper stent selection is therefore crucial. Several reports of stent re-dilatation13,18 describe this intervention to be mostly effective and safe. However, fatal vessel rupture in re-dilatation may occur.19

In this study, ‘parking’ of malpositioned or embolized stents at benign positions other than the indicated stenotic sites, was considered to be a minor complication. Long-term complications in growing children, however, may be more severe, as they may need re-dilatation or possibly even surgical stent removal, even when these stents were implanted at an originally ‘benign’ site.


   Study limitations
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Study limitations
Conclusions and recommendations
 References
 
Retrospective studies of this kind carry the risk of under-reporting of procedures and complications. Indeed, occasionally procedural information could not be retrieved. Also, complications like balloon rupture, haematoma, and arrhythmia without severe consequences are likely to have not been documented properly. Statistical analyses based upon group totals may have been biased by population subgroup differences as well. This is especially true for patient age, as certain implantation sites are fit for specific age ranges only. Sites therefore may differ in complication rates for this reason. Unfortunately, patient numbers in this study are too small to allow for multivariate analysis of potential risk factors for complications. Using the GEE method, we attempted to correct for multiple procedures in the same patient.

A final limitation of this study is its short-term approach. Apart from short-term complications, stent implantation will most likely also carry a risk of long-term complications. Restenosis, neointima proliferation, and stent fracture may occur.13,18,20 Long-term complications were beyond the scope of our study, but definitely require further exploration.


   Conclusions and recommendations
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Study limitations
 Conclusions and recommendations
References
 
Current clinical practice should not underestimate complication rates of stenting in patients with congenital heart disease. It is difficult, however, to fully master every possible procedure seeing the vast diversity of indications combined with a relatively small population for stenting. Procedures therefore remain complication-sensitive. Our study nevertheless showed infrequent major complications and few fatal complications over a large variety of cases.

Especially, in these small patient groups with a wide range of diagnoses and anatomical substrates to be treated, adding on the experience of interventional paediatric cardiologists may limit the number of complications. In addition, more precise visualization of the morphology gained using MRI or multislice CT will improve our understanding of the anatomical substrate to be treated and will thus enable more precise selection of stents.

Because the use of non-premounted stents is associated with significantly higher complication rates, we recommend the use of premounted stents if an appropriate final diameter can be achieved. The industry should further expand the range of available premounted stents towards larger diameters, which could contribute to bringing down the incidences of stent migration and embolization.

Conflict of interest: none declared.


   Footnotes
 
This paper was guest-edited by Prof. Fernando Maymone-Martins, Hospital de Santa Cruz, Portugal


   References
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Study limitations
 Conclusions and recommendations
 References
 

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  9. Schneider TI, Höpp HW, Vlaho D, Wassmer G, Füssl R, Fassbender S, Wehr G, Konz KH, Späh F, Baer FM. (2003) Randomized comparison of mounted versus non premounted stents: the multicentre COMUS trial. Am Heart J 145:e4.[CrossRef][Medline]
  10. Cheung Y, Sanatani S, Leung MP, Human DG, Chau AK, Culham JA. (2000) Early and intermediate-term complications of self-expanding stents limit its potential application in children with congenital heart disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 354:1007–1015.
  11. Allen HD, Beekman RH III, Garson A Jr, Hijazi ZM, Mullins CE, O'Laughlin MP, Taubert KA. (1998) Pediatric therapeutic cardiac catheterisation: a statement for healthcare professionals from the council on cardiovascular disease in the young. Circulation 97:609–625.[Free Full Text]
  12. Fogelman R, Nykanen D, Smallhorn JF, McCrindle BW, Freedom RM, Benson LN. (1995) Endovascular stents in the pulmonary circulation: clinical impact on management and medium term follow-up. Circulation 92:881–885.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
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  14. McMahon CJ, ElSaid HG, Vincent JA, Grifka RG, Nihill MR, Ing FF, Fraley JK, Mullins CE. (2002) Refinements in the implantation of pulmonary arterial stents: impact on morbidity and mortality of the procedure over the last two decades. Cardiol Young 12:445–452.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
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